Nervous System

ORGANIZATION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM

Nervous System
a) Central Nervous System: Interneuron
- Brain (refer The brain)
- Spinal cord


SPINAL CORD
- protected by vertebrae
- composed of:
a) Cervical
b) Thoraxic
c) Lumbar
d) Sacrum
e) Coccyx
- Function:

• link the CNS and PNS
• control reflex action

REFLEX ACTION

- spontaneous

- fast

- unplanned event/ sequence

- Function: Protection

- Component:

a) Sensory neuron: Sensory organ

b) Interneuron: Spinal cord (integrating center)

c) Motor neuron: Muscle & glands

b) Peripheral Nervous System: Sensory neuron & motor neuron
- Autonomic Nervous System
- Somatic Nervous System
- Enteric Nervous System

Endocrine System

Anatomy of Endocrine System:

Endocrine System Functions:

1. Regulate body activity

2. Regulate body metabolism

3. Regulate sleep, hungry, etc

4. Regulate blood pressure

5. Regulate body fluid

6. Regulate blood glucose level

Endocrine Glands Functions:
1. Hypothalamus:
Regulate endocrine system activity (releasing hormones, oxytocin & ADH)--> Stimulate   the glands

2. Pituitary glands:
Pituitary gland anterior: Produce hormones (TSH, GH, etc)Pituitary gland posterior: Store hormones (oxytocin & ADH)

3. Pineal glands: Produce melatonin--> Biology clock

4. Thyroid gland:
Produce FSH--> Regulate body metabolism
Produce calcitonin--> Decrease calcium level in the blood

5. Parathyroid gland: Produce Parathyroid hormone--> Decrease calcium level in the blood

6. Adrenal gland:
a) Cortex adrenal:
Steroid hormone:
Aldosteron--> Regulate body fluid & blood pressure
Cortisol--> Increase blood glucose level, protein & fat breakdown

Sex hormone: 
Testosterone--> Stimulate sperm production & secondary sex characteristic
Estrogen & Progesteron-->
- Stimulate ovum production & secondary sex characteristic
- Stimulate the development of uterus wall

b) Medulla adrenal: Produce adrenalin--> Increase heart rate

7. Pancreas:
Produce insulin & glucagon--> Regulate blood glucose level

8. Ovaries:
Produce progesterone & estrogen-->
- Stimulate ovum production &secondary sex characteristic (feminine effect)
- Regulate menstrual cycle & pregnancy

9. Testicles:
Produce testosterone-->
- Stimulate secondary sex characteristic (masculine effect)
- Sperms production

How to score your EXAM?

1. Make the notes colorful enough
2. Revise all the subject early
3. Repeat all the reading until understand
4. Memorize and understand all the term, concept and facts
5. Create a mind mapping with good keyword
6. Do exercises (tutorial)
7. Use your mind mapping everyday until examination day
8. Rest your mind 30 minutes before examination start

"There is a WILL, there is a WAY"

Digestive System

Function:

1. Ingestion: Taking food into the mouth

2. Secretion: Secrete water, acid buffer, enzyme and juice

3. Swallowing: Allow food to enter digestive tract 

4. Digestion: Mechanically & chemically food breakdown

5. Absorption: Absorb all the nutrient from the food 

6. Defecation: Elimination of feces (stool/ wastes product) from rectum via anus

Digestive System Anatomy:

Digestive System Physiology or Food Digestion:

Enzymes or secretion in the GIT:

Digestion Stages:
a) Mastication: Food is breakdown mechanically (by teeth & tongue) and chemically (by amilase in saliva)    
                       --> BOLUS
b) Swallowing: Bolus is swallowed into esophagus
c) Digestion:
    i) Phase 1: Cephalic Phase: Gaster is stimulated by the smell, hearing, & seeing of the food
    ii) Phase 2: Gastric Phase: Bolus/ Food digestion
    iii) Phase 3: Intestinal Phase: Bolus is turn into CHYME
d) Absorption: All the nutrient & water in the cyhme will be absorbed via small intestine into blood vessels & lymphatic vessels
e) Excretion: Water will be absorbed again in the colon/ large intestine
                    Chyme is turn into solid waste
                    Waste product/ feces will be eliminated from the rectum via anus

The Brain

1. Located in the intracranial cavity.

2. Consist of 2 section/ lobes: Right hemisphere & left hemisphere.
3. The brain surface is folding to increase the brain area

4. Both of the lobes are connected by corpus callosum.

5. Brain section/ area:
    a) Cerebrum/ cerebral cortex: Integrating & intellectual center
    b) Thalamus
    c) Hypothalamus: Regulate body activity via hormonal system
    d) Midbrain
    e) Pituitary gland: Regulate body activity via hormonal system
    f) Pons: Helps cerebellum in control the body movement
    g) Cerebellum: Control the body equilibrium & movement
    h) Medulla oblongata: Control respiration & heartbeat
    i) Spinal cord: Signal pathway to the brain or to the muscle & glands

6. Brain lobes/ regions:

   a) Frontal: Intelligence area/ sensory motor area

   b) Parietal: Motor area

   c) Occipital: Visual area

   d) Temporal: Auditory (hearing) area

7. Differences between female & male brain:

" Otak hanya satu, akal beribu"

Heart Anatomy

Here are short note about heart anatomy:

1. Heart is divided into 2 section by atrioventricular septum.
2. Heart consist of 4 chambers: Right atrium, left atrium, right ventricle & left ventricle.
3. Heart consist of several valves:
    a) Tricuspid valve/ Atrioventricular valve: Located between right atrium & right ventricle.
    b) Mitral valve/ Bicuspid/ Atrioventricular valve: Located between left atrium & left ventricle.
    c) Aortic valve/ Semilunar valve: Located at the oarta.
    d) Pulmonary valve/ Semilunar valve: Located at the pulmonary veins.
4. The wall of left ventricle is thick rather than right ventricle.
5. Right coronary artery and left coronary artery are responsible to supply the blood to the heart itself.
6. The end of the heart is known as heart apex.
7. Blood vessels:
    a) Aorta
    b) Vena cava
    c) Pulmonary veins
    d) Pulmonary artery

Mechanism of Blood Circulation in The Heart:

1. Deoxygenized blood is transported from the cell by vena cava.
2. From vena cava, the deoxygenized blood enter right atrium.
3. From right atrium, the deoxygenized blood is pumped into right ventricle via tricuspid valve/ atrioventricular valve/
4. From right ventricle, the deoxygenized blood is pumped into pulmonary artery via pulmonary valve/ semilunar valve.
5. Pulmonary artery will transport the deoxygenized blood to the lung --> Gas exchange with oxygen
6. From the lung, the oxygenized blood is transported to the left atrium by pulmonary vein.
7. From left atrium, the oxygenized blood is pumped to the left ventricle via mitral valve/ bicuspid valve/ atrioventricular valve.
8. From left ventricle, the oxygenized blood is pumped to the aorta via aortic valve/ semilunar valve.
9. Aorta will distribute the oxygenized blood to the entire body (cells).

Heartbeat Mechanism

Everyday our heart still beating. Never stop until it reach the day. How our heart beating? There is a special mechanism happen in the heart. There are some electrical activities in the heart. To understand how heart beating, we have to know the special structure in the heart which is responsible in producing heartbeat.

1. SA node

2. AV node

3. Bundle of His/ Bundle branches

4. Purkinje fibers

All of these structure act as electrical pathway in the heart. These are the explanation how the heart beating.

1. SA node, located at the wall of right atria will produce some electrical signal. 

2. This signal spread to the AV node. AV node is located at the atrioventricular septum. 

3. AV node is stimulated by the signal causes more electrical signal been produced. These signal spread all over the atrial causes the atrial contraction.

4. From AV node, the signal spread to the heart apex via Bundle of His causes the contraction of heart apex.

5. These signal then spread to all over the ventricular muscle along Purkinje fibers causes the contraction of heart ventricular muscle.

These even will be continually happened till the end of our life.

Integumentary System

Skin is a larger sensory organ. It have a very complicated and sophisticated layer.

It protect us from germ infection, heat, chemical substance etc. A very wonderful barrier. First line barrier.
It also protect us from UV rays from sun shine.. Melanin, a skin pigment produced by melanocytes will protect us from UV rays and low the risk of getting skin cancer. So it is a good reason for those which have a dark skin.

The skin also provides a sensational detection. So that we can feel a touch, pressure, vibration, pain, cold and warm sensation from the environment.
It also help us to regulate our body temperature. When we feel hot, the sweat gland will produce more sweat, the hair will be bent to the surface and the vascular turn to dilate so that the heat in the body will be removed out from our body to the environment. Release all the tension..When we feel cold, the hair will be stand upward and the vascular turn to constrict so that the heat will be keep in the body. Release all the tension. Is't all? 

Skin also help the body to make a vitamin D. Our body needs vitamin D in order to stimulate calcium absorption into the bone. The way to avoid from osteoporosis.  

Wow, a perfect creation from God.

Respiratory System

In understanding the breathing mechanism, we have to understand the anatomy and physiology of respiratory system.

These are the respiratory system anatomy/ function/ structure:

1. Nose: Air filter; Contain hair and conchae

2. Pharynx: Air flow/ Air ventilation; Wet surface

3. Larynx: Air flow/ Air ventilation; Wet surface

4. Trachea/ Bronchus: Air flow/ Air ventilation; Semi-ring like cartilage- maintain tubular shape from collapse

5. Bronchioles: Air flow/ Air ventilation; Small branches of bronchus

6. Alveolus: Gas exchange; Simple squamous cell layer; contain surfactant